Foreword

The paper below is an attempt to develop in outline a general theory of cause and effect that is derived, in the first instance, from the experimental evidence of matter and energy on the smallest scale.  This is not a theory of particles and forces but rather, it is an account that seeks to justify and describe from a wide range of natural evidence details of a cause acting in addition to the known forces.  From the small or quantum scale evidence alone such a cause has only been described in an account of quantum mechanics called de Broglie-Bohm interpretation (de B-BI). Over a dozen different kinds of interpretation can be listed. But by accounting for the observable quantum behaviour in terms of a distinct cause and its effects upon objects in motion, de B-BI  can lead to the question as to whether such a causal interpretation could be developed into a more general theory that also considers larger scale evidence.  We find that such a development is possible by seeking to justify causal properties that can be verbally described and diagrammatically represented and where measurement and calculation is of secondary significance.  We suggest that, on the small scale, our account could thus provide a cosmological answer to the questions of what causes the quantum wave property and quantum entanglement. 
    

 

Of a nonlocal cause and its effects - towards a general theory of natural organisation

 Andrew Daw

Abstract

A requirement of a ‘theory of everything’ could be to explain, in terms of cause and effect, how the universe is of a certain form as atoms and molecules of the elements and compounds of matter and as the energy that matter radiates, as species of living organisms, as the galaxies of stars and planetary systems, and as groups, clusters and walls of galaxies around cosmic voids.  Findings now strongly indicate that, for some 13.7 billion years, the universe has been expanding from a single very dense origin when it consisted just of photons and subatomic particles, while certain outstanding general problems have arisen in the development of the present standard model cosmology.  These problems could include: an insufficient explanation for the origin and retention of the various forms of spiral galaxy, the lack of direct confirmation of the existence and nature of nonbaryonic dark matter that could account for the rotation and collective behaviour of galaxies, and of dark energy to explain the universal accelerating expansion.  Problems with the foundations of quantum theory also remain: with various and conflicting interpretations of the experimental evidence, including one where details are mathematically described of the quantum wave property as an additional cause to the known forces or interactions, and which is consistent with a wide range of experimental findings. Whereas a more widely preferred and experimentally very successful interpretation of the same experimental findings describes no such further cause.  Also, whether causally or acausally interpreted, the mathematics indicates that quantum behaviour cannot be visualised or explained within a four dimensional space-time framework.  

    Here we present reasons to consider that a causal interpretation of the quantum evidence implies a quite different kind of general theory to any that assumes just the action of the known forces or interactions.  So we find that we can justify and develop a quantum hypothesis that introduces means of verbally describing and visually representing the action of an additional cause.  And this development assumes that quantum wave, spin and entanglement describe behaviour that is of certain form beyond the results of experiments.  Only from of the quantum hypothesis that we have presented here could we clearly justify and visualise a possible cosmological origin for the quantum wave, and then suggest how this cosmological wave theory could be supported by a new large scale cosmology that includes an explanation for the formation, forms, rotation, collective behaviour and distribution of galaxies, as well as the accelerating universal expansion.  We also found our hypothesis provided a means of justifying and picturing a direct causal relationship between the quantum evidence and the nature and behaviour of living organisms.  We have only been able to develop our theory in outline, so that the cosmology especially would need much more development.  But we have been able to suggest how the general theory could be supported by unique experiments.

1. Introduction

Much evidence indicates that the four forces or fundamental interactions of gravity, electro-magnetism and the nuclear strong and weak forces act within and upon matter throughout the universe.  So that one reason to think there could be no further such cause that acts invisibly upon matter and energy could be just that there would seem to be nowhere that it could act in addition to the four known interactions.  Thus it can at least seem as though the universe is governed entirely just by causes that can be described as acting, in some way, by pushing or pulling or objects, including those that act by attraction or repulsion or as the result of the curvature of space time.  All the fundamental interactions could be described as acting locally where they surround objects.  So that gravity and electromagnetism are measured to reduce in their strength of effect according to the inverse square of the distance around objects, and the two nuclear forces do not act beyond a very short distance and thus only between the components of the atomic nucleus.

    Yet from the experimental evidence on the quantum scale there can be thought to remain the problem of sufficiently explaining how matter can be and remain in any or all of its various forms and organisation as the elements and their compounds, and given just the known properties of electromagnetism, especially, but also the nuclear forces, and as they have been found to act within atoms and molecules. While the conclusion could be that no definite solution could be found to these problems at least from any of the findings on the scale of atoms and molecules, their subatomic components, or photons - or what we shall call the quantum evidence - and when this evidence is considered alone.

     The intention of this paper is to sufficiently justify, initially from the quantum behaviour called wave and entanglement, certain unique properties of a cause that could only be described from its effects upon matter and energy, and where it may be considered to act in addition to the known forces.  Then only once this quantum hypothesis has been developed, do we find that the causal properties, which are verbally described in unambiguous terms and diagrammatically represented from the quantum behaviour, provide essential keys to the justification and development of what may termed a general theory of natural organisation that applies to all visible scales in the cosmos, from photons to the known universe as a whole. 

    For we find our quantum hypothesis uniquely leads in two directions: firstly towards a visualised theory of the cosmological origin of the quantum wave, and in turn, to a detailed outline of a nonlocal causal cosmology of the large scale evolution of the universe to its presently observed form.  And then secondly we find that the description and visual represent-ation of key properties of a nonlocally and extra-dimensionally acting cause of quantum entanglement leads directly to a visualised cause of consciousness.  And this representation can be justified by resolving certain problems of mind that have been discussed in academic philosophy, as well as a verbally described property that can be attributed to the general behaviour of living organisms, including human beings.

    Neither of the key properties of the further cause can be described of any force, but they could be regarded as having equivalent significance to the object surrounding and attractive properties of gravity.  For, just as in case of gravity, only by deducing unquantified features of an invisible cause in the first instance, could a general theory be developed that, on further investigation of enough evidence of its effects, definitely show both that and how it produces its effects.

    So from the experimental findings of the subatomic composition of atoms and molecules alone, we suggest no adequate or definite answers have been found to the following: 

1.      Since scattering experiments of a kind that were first performed in 1909^[1], all matter can be considered to consist almost all of the space around its sub-atomic components as particles called electrons and atomic nuclei.  And a force some 38 orders of magnitude more powerful than gravity is found to attract between electrons and atomic nuclei and of repel between electrons as the outer components of atoms and molecules, while there can be thought to remain a problem of how this can be so given any electromagnetic theory of the atom, which we briefly address here.  So, however the nature and behaviour of electrons can be described in detail as particles or point objects, we can ask: should there not be something in addition to any force that causes electrons to resist the powerful action of the electromagnetic force?  And then if so, could this resistance not result from the electron’s wave property as a real and distinct cause acting in addition to any force?  And how could enough details be found and described of such a cause?  This cause could also produce the wave behaviour of freely travelling electrons and other matter particles, as well as photons of radiant or electromagnetic energy, including light, x-rays and radio waves.

And also:

2  To account for spectroscopic and chemical properties of atoms and molecules of a given element or compound it is found that electrons need to be composed or organised in a certain way around atomic nuclei. This electronic composition is described by the Pauli exclusion principle, and it may be asked, given that no known property of electromagnetism can be described to explain this organising principle, and that pairs of electrons as atomic components can be described as being entangled in singlet or composite states, would there not need to be described a cause of this quantum entanglement, and thus to sufficient-ly explain the subatomic organisation of matter, as well as the entangled composite states that have been described of radiant energy?  And if so, how could enough details be described or represented of such a cause?  

     Thus of the various interpretations of the quantum evidence, only one kind describes the quantum wave as a distinct cause that would act invisibly upon objects as particles that include electrons in motion. These are called hidden variables interpretations that were developed firstly by Louis de Broglie in 1927^[2] then David Bohm in 1952^[3] and which has since been called the de Broglie-Bohm interpretation or theory or, after de Broglie’s designation, Pilot Wave theory.  And, while in the Pilot Wave account the effects of the quantum wave on the trajectories of particles could be described in mathematical detail, none of this particle behaviour could be observed or measured by any means as objects in motion.   And the quantum wave would not be like any wave property that has been found on a larger scale. 

    Also, the interpretation of standard quantum theory, which has been most widely preferred by physicists, finds reasons to consider that all the behaviour that has been uniquely observed and measured of quantum objects is indeter-minate beyond the results of experiments, and so would have no cause. Although there can be considered historical and pragmatic reasons for why an indeterminate interpretation has been so widely accepted. So that after the development of quantum mechanics in 1927 the assumption of indeterminacy, with the superposition of quantum states and wave function collapse, was written into the axioms of quantum mechanics and exclusively published in all textbooks.  Also, what was later to be called the Copenhagen interpretation was simple to justify mathematically and to incorporate into a quantum mechanics that could be claimed to be a complete theory.  While it can be pointed out that an experimentally highly successful theory has been developed that accounts for many properties of matter and radiant energy given the assumption of indeterminacy,

    But the indeterminacy of the Copenhagen interpretation has also led to a measurement problem, which is essentially to do with the question of up to what scale can the indeterminacy be said to apply?  The lack of an answer to this question allowed Irwin Schrodinger to ask whether the indeterminate interpretation could apply in an imagined experiment where a cat could be regarded as being in a indeterminable superposition of dead and alive states until it is observed.^[4]   Whereas given that simple mathematics indicates that quantum objects possess a wave property while in motion and that they could be directly detected as particles, ordinary scientific reasoning suggests that such travelling objects should have some combination of wave and particle properties.  This was actually the reasoning of Isaac Newton even though he did describe light as corpuscular^[5].  By 1927, although de Broglie had not yet found a fully consistent causal wave-particle theory, he had developed such an account for both single and many particles, and which has been obscured by most historical accounts.^[6]

    Then too, just being able to predict the results of experiments or observations the quantum theory need not be regarded as a sufficient explanation of the quantum evidence.  So Kepler’s laws could be used to predict the orbital motion of planets, but Newton’s and Einstein’s discoveries of gravity as an invisible cause can be regarded as natural explanations of planetary motion, as well as much else that are the effects of gravity.  And it could insisted that, like the discoveries that have described in enough details of all the forces from their effects, a sufficient explanation of quantum behaviour should include a sufficiently justified and described account of how a cause produces its effects upon objects in motion. 

    If only because all the evidence of quantum behaviour is both indirect and unlike any other behaviour, no sufficiently justified cause and effect account of objects in motion could be given from the quantum evidence alone. But then no evidence just of the orbital motion of any objects was enough by itself to find, sufficiently justify and describe gravity to demonstrate that it acts invisibly anywhere upon objects.  And as has been the case for other major discoveries of natural cause and effect, the possibility of the first discovery that was described of gravity was only realised when various appropriate evidence of its different kinds of effect was considered together.  While, because the quantum evidence is of what can be regarded as universal constituents of matter including living organisms, it can reasonably assumed that the evidence of atoms and molecules is, in some way, related to all living organisms, and even to the astronomical evidence, especially given the major explan-atory problems with present standard model cosmology. 

    Also common and crucial to discoveries of wide explanatory application in the natural sciences has been the deduction of essentially quite simple unifying properties or principles. Perhaps the simplest was the property of attraction for Newton’s discoveries of gravity.  So, initially, there needed to be the deduction that a constant invisibly acting attractive pull could be exerted from bodies such as the Earth both upon objects to make them fall and possess weight and upon bodies such as moons and planets to keep them in orbit around more massive bodies.  Then for the deduction of gravity as resulting from the curvature of spacetime there was the principle of equivalence based upon the idea that the pull due to gravity is indistinguishable from the pull due to acceleration.  In biology there is the unifying principle of the living cell and the role of the cell’s DNA molecules in reproduction and inherited characteristics, and in geology there is plate tectonics, whereby the gradual motions of large sections of the Earth’s crust explain mountain range formation, earthquakes and volcanic activity.   

    In the case of invisible causes that are the four fundamental interactions that include gravity and electromagnetism, also crucial has been appropriate means of describing or representing their action in enough detail.  As causes that can all be described as acting with some measurable strength where they push or pull objects, the details of their action have been found and described largely by measurement and mathematical calculation, although diagrams have also been used to represent, for example, the curvature of space time due to gravity and the form of electrical and magnetic fields, while the properties of attraction and repulsion are verbally described.  

    Whereas, in contrast, we find that the justification of causal properties that can only be diagrammatically represented and verbally described are central to the development of a general theory of a nonlocally acting cause and its effects. This is because, uniquely in physics, our theory is concerned with explaining the discontinuously variable natural forms and forms of behaviour of phenomena. So, in this respect, our account more closely resembles a biological theory.  And indeed, we have included here such an explanatory account of living organisms as discontinuously varying species, which crucially supports the general theory as a whole.

    In the Pilot Wave account of quantum behaviour the theoretical development centres upon a mathematical description of the quantum wave property and how, as a laterally extended wave, this could travel with particles both individually and collectively so as to guide particles to produce, by their many impacts on a screen, quantum interference and diffraction patterns. Thus in the Young’s two slit interference experiment for single particles, the Pilot Wave account describes how, while each particle would pass through either one or other of the slits, the associated wave would pass through both slits and thus produce the wave peaks and troughs of interference from the barrier to the screen, which guides the motion of the particles to produce interference fringes.

     Whereas our hypothesis begins by considering quantum entanglement in terms of cause and effect, and even though there seems to be no cause that could be described as producing non-local correlations.  Yet we shall suggest that and how the action of a non-local cause could have one property that can be verbally described and one that can be diagrammatically represented.  And it is these two causal properties that we find are central to the development of the general theory as a whole.

    As we turn to our quantum hypothesis we are concerned to emphasise that this may be regarded as a too speculative or improbable conjecture, but it is essential that our whole theoretical argument, in relation to all the evidence we consider here, needs to be assessed before any judgement is made as to its validity.  

 

2.1 A Quantum hypothesis

To represent additional spatial dimensions to those of four dimensional spacetime, both standard quantum theory and Pilot Wave theory have used the mathematical formalism of multidimensional vector space.  So Hilbert space allows for the non-locality of quantum entanglement in particular, and Pilot Wave theory describes the quantum wave as propa-gating in configuration space.  Both de Broglie and Bohm expressed dissatisfaction with the vector space formalism, as did Irwin Schrődinger when it was pointed out that the mathematics of his wave equation required that the number of spatial dimensions should multiply with each additional subatomic component of an atom. And this extra-dimensional aspect of quantum theory added weight to the argument for quantum indeterminacy and the nonexistence of the quantum wave as a physically real property.

   Whereas in our hypothesis, initially, we seek to justify as far as possible from the quantum evidence alone, a cause that would act invisibly from real extra dimensions of space, and which would need to act on the same scale as the three of the height, breadth and depth of the whole universe..

    But before we consider the evidence itself we find there is a need to reply to prior arguments for the impossibility of such additional large scale spatial dimensions in principle.  So there is the assumption that extra spatial dimensions on the observable scale could themselves be observed.  But we can point out that the three spatial dimensions of the observable universe cannot themselves be observed just as such, so that only objects with such dimensions are observable.  Nor are we suggesting any such further dimension would contain anything other than a cause that, like gravity and electromagnetism, is unobservable in any case as an additional cause that can only be described from its effects. 

    Another argument is that the existence of one additional dimension of space would mean that that gravity and electromagnetism would reduce in strength according to the inverse cube of the distance between objects rather than the inverse square. Then a further dimension would require the strength reduction to be as to inverse fourth power, and so on.  But this argument assumes that the forces would act in the extra dimens-ions.  Whereas we find reasons to consider that none of the forces would act in the additional dimensions, so that only the further cause would act from outside four dimensional space-time. This causal relationship would thus resolve the apparent conflict between quantum theory and relativity.  The conflict arising from the fact that relativity is concerned with forces that locally surround objects and where there could be no absolute instantaneity of effects between objects, and the indication from quantum theory and experimentation of instantaneous non-local effects that are unvarying at any distance.

    We define non-locality as instantaneous and unvarying action or effects at any distance, which are the properties that were deduced in the 1935 paper published by Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen^[7].  In 1935 it was not known whether any experiment could be devised to test the paper’s conclusions that a complete quantum theory would confirm a local or classical explanation of quantum theory.  And it was not until 1964 that a theorem was published by John Stuart Bell^[8] that could mathematically distinguish between the predictions of a local as against a nonlocal hidden variables interpretation and indicated that, contrary to the EPR paper’s conclusions, any hidden variables interpretation or completion of quantum theory would need to be non-local.  Also, a generalisation of Bell’s theorem finally allowed experiments to be performed that could test whether or not long distance entangled correlations could be measured, as predicted by standard quantum mechanics and required by Pilot Wave theory. 

    Entangled correlations of spin could be measured between the proton and electron as components of the hydrogen atom and also between nuclear components. While the Pauli Exclusion Principle, which accounts in detail for the spectral and chemical properties of matter implies that all electron pairs at any given atomic energy level are entangled as composite systems.  But most conducive to the long distance experimental test of locality, as defined by Bell’s theorem, was found to be the polarisation of photons. 

    The entanglement of photons, however, is only possible because pairs of electrons are entangled in singlet states as the outer components of atoms.  Thus one of the properties of electron behaviour is that of spin.  A unique feature of quantum spin is that it could only be described as possessing two opposite directions of rotation, called spin-up and spin-down, and to explain their atomic behaviour pairs of electrons as atomic components needed to be described as being in opposite directions of spin.  Atomic electrons could also be described as being at only certain energy levels or states and emit or absorb photons as they jump from one level to another.  Under certain experimental conditions pairs of electron can be induced to fall in energy level in rapid succession in a cascade, and thus emit pairs of photons. The cascade thus transmits the opposite electron spin entanglement into the opposite and entangled circular polarisation of the photon pairs.  

    Experiments of a kind first carried out in 1972 used the electron cascade effect in calcium to produce photon pairs that could be separated into two beams and passed through polarising filters, so that each beam is measured to be plane polarised, one beam being vertically polarised relative to the horizontal polarisation of the other beam.  The beams were separated to several metres and each was measured.  Four out of the five experiments performed up to 1978^[9] measured correlations consistent with the prediction of Bell's theorem.  But it was not until 1982 that a team of physicists led by Alain Aspect designed an experiment that could measure the effect to occur at faster than the speed of light^[10].The Aspect experiment measured correlations between two beams of photons at a distance of 12 metres. Since 1982 many similar experiments have been performed that have success-fully measured entangled correlations, with one, by Anton Zeilinger et alia, at a distance of 144 kilometres between photon beams^[11].  And the effect could not be measured to vary and to occur at millions of times faster than the speed of light. Thus these experiments have served to support nonlocality as predicted by quantum mechanics.  But we ask: could any direct large scale evidence be found to support this experimental evidence?

    The first discovery of gravity and its effects showed that a natural cause may only be made, firstly, by deducing enough of its properties, including its measured strength, while according to any existing physics quantum entanglement can be thought not to have any cause.  Thus unlike all known causes in present physics, that of entangled correlations could not be quantified in terms of their strength of effect or be represented as a field that surrounds objects, and thus would reduce in or cease to have any strength with increasing distance around objects.  Then if it is considered that something needs to travel between objects to produce quantum entanglement then this would need to move at faster than the speed of light. 

     We can point out that there is behaviour of quantum objects that are not correlated and those where a correlation can be measured.  And it is reasonable to call the measured correlation an effect that does not occur when there is no entanglement.  Also, there are observable spec-troscopic and chemical properties that matter would not possess without such correlations.  Then given that PWT provides an essentially simple account of quantum behaviour where the quantum wave is described as distinct cause, then the existence of a cause of quantum entanglement could make sense.  And again, entanglement could be reasonably said to be acausal if no properties at all can be ascribed to any cause.  While any cause would be just that which can be sufficiently justified and unambiguously described from its effects upon objects.

    So, first of all, we can consider how an initial key to the first discovery that was described from the effects of gravity was deducing a property that could only be verbally described.  So gravity could thought of as a cause firstly just by the realisation that it could possess a pull of attraction that produced the weight and fall of objects close to the surface of the Earth, and also keep objects such as the Earth’s moon  and the planets in orbit around more massive objects.  By examining together enough evidence of its various kinds of effect, details then needed to be justified and described of how gravity varies in its strength of effect to definitely show that it acts in the world.  Such details could not be described of a cause of quantum entanglement.  Yet we claim that instead, and again by examining together enough evidence of its effects diagrammatic representations of the cause that provide the essential key to justifying the existence and nature of the cause.

     For the sake of simplicity we shall consider the singlet state of electron pairs, which we have already mentioned as bringing about photon entanglement.  But the causal properties we deduce here can apply to all entangled states. 

    Thus we can consider the spin-up and spin down properties of electron pairs. When electrons are paired components of atoms they are always in opposite directions of spin.  So that whenever spin-up is measured of one component electron the other will be in the spin-down direction, and because of this consistent relationship of behaviour the electrons can be described as entangled.  No push or pull force can be described or measured to explain this relationship.  But we consider that that there is a property that an invisible cause would need to possess for objects to retain this opposite spin relationship.  So that just as a magnet can be described in words as attracting or repelling objects, we can verbally describe a cause that would act so as to maintain or conserve the form of the entangled behavioural relationship. 

     Because entangled correlations could be described as occurring between all electron pairs as subatomic components of atoms as well as between the nuclear components, we can describe the cause of quantum entanglement as a material organisation conserving cause.  This is a cause, we suggest, that needs to act because, in particular, as an attract-or-repel force, electromagnetism could not be described to explain any of the particular arrangements of electrons in atoms as described by the exclusion principle. We shall find that, as a general property that applies universally, an appropriate description is of a form conserving cause.

    But given that this form conserving cause would act nonlocally we need to justify and describe from where a cause could act that does not in any way vary with distance between objects.  We have already postulated that the quantum entanglement is an effect of a cause acting from real extra dimensions of space.  We have also argued that such large scale dimensions, which uniquely contain nothing other than an unobservable cause, can exist in principle without being observed, while gravity and electromagnetism can still obey the inverse square law by acting only in three dimensions of space, and where they just act as they locally surround objects. 

    So, like gravity, such an invisible cause could act universally without anyone being aware of its existence until enough evidence of its effects is found by careful observation and experiment and then examined together. 

 

2.1.1 A diagrammatic causal representation

2.1.2 Quantum entanglement

We can list the following initial reasons to consider that a cause acts upon matter and energy from spatial dimensions outside the three of the world experienced.

1.    We have reasoned that there needs to be a cause that acts at a distance so as to conserve the fixed relationship of behaviour between objects described by quantum entanglement. Such a cause would therefore act unlike any push or pull cause that would possess a measurable strength.

2.    With no strength of effect that can reduce or cease with increasing distance between objects, the correlations could not be measured to vary at any distance, and which has been so far tested experimentally up to a distance 144 kilometres,

3.    A cause that would not reduce or cease in its effects at any distance could not be described as acting locally where it surrounds objects in three dimensional space.

4.    No evidence has been found to indicate that the entangled effect would be affected by any physical barrier placed between correlated quantum components.

5.    Effects upon objects on a two dimensional surface can be produced by a magnet acting in a third dimension.

6.    Effects produced by a cause acting from outside three dimensional space could avoid the action of any cause in three dimensional space, so that an effect such as the spin-up/spin-down entanglement of electrons can occur in addition to and despite any action of electromagnetism. 

7.    Given that the relativity principle applies only to the space containing three dimen-sional objects plus time, a cause acting from outside space-time can be thought to produce effects between objects in no time or instantaneously and under any conditions of relative motion.  Thus such universal instant-aneity of effect under all conditions of relative motion would mean that there could be no backwards in time signalling or action at a distance

We find that a simple means is appropriate for the visual representation of an extra-dimen-sional cause in three dimensions.  We deduce that there needs to be a cause acting in one additional dimension of space to produce non-entangled single particle systems and two extra dimensions to produce entangled composite systems with two or more components.  So we shall find reasons to consider a cosmological origin to quantum wave and spin behaviour produced by a cause acting from a single fourth dimension of space.  A fifth spatial dimension is then needed to conserve each composite and so that the single fifth dimensional cause branches into an indefinite number of fourth dimensional sub-causes, one for each different composite system.    

Figure 1 represents a nonlocal cause acting just from a fourth dimension of space to produce the entanglement of two particles pictured here as two dimensional discs on the top surface of a cube containing a three dimensional image of the cause. We can then add a cause acting from a fifth spatial dimension so as to conserve the sub-cause of the composite system as in figure 2. So that here the entangled particles are represented on the one dimensional edge of the cube, with the fourth dimensional cause pictured in two dimensions, and which in turn is attached, inside the cube, to a three dimensional image of a  cause acting from a fifth dimension of space.  

    Given this extra-dimensional hypothesis we can make two extrapolations. One is that, given the composite arrangement of subatomic components described by the Pauli principle, all the atoms or molecules as constituents of every element or compound are each acted upon by a single universal and unifying sub-cause acting from a fourth spatial dimension.  The other is that the quantum wave is produced by a single fourth dimensional cause the influence of which pervades all three dimensional space in way that is equivalent to an ether, except that this wave producing causal medium is extra-dimensionally related in its action and is not substantial.  And it was not disproved that any kind of ether existed by developing special and general relativity, which only applied to four dimensional space-time. Also, any effect of an extra-dimensional quantum wave producing cause would not be strong enough to be measured from the motion of bodies such as the Earth, which are strongly affected by gravity, as was attempted by the Michelson-Morley experiment^[12].  Below, however, we consider how a nonlocal cause may be measured to speed up the motion of small orbiting bodies where the effect of gravity is weak enough.

    We shall now deduce an origin to the quantum wave whereby further properties are represented of a fourth dimensional cause, and so that we can  suggest how certain properties measured of quantum wave behaviour can be explained.  Although sufficient observable support for this postulate entails the development of a whole detailed cosmology of a cause acting nonlocally in addition to the forces by citing a wide range of astronomical evidence. 

    So in present Big Bang theory as based on high energy particle physics it has been possible to trace the evolution of the early universe back to when it was a minute fraction of a second old and less than the size of a proton and could thus develop a cosmological theory of the initial formation of subatomic particles.   At this very early stage there is also a theory called inflation which conceives of the universe undergoing an exponential acceleration of expansion for a split second to faster than light speeds   This process was considered necessary to explain, in particular, the uniformity, or homogeneity and isotropy, in the large scale distribution of matter and energy in the universe as a result of the initial causal connection between all its contents.  We consider that in a nonlocal universe such a accelerating process would be unnecessary since at all times the whole of its contents would be continually and instant-aneously connected.  Also, such a cause of the universal expansion could exert an even amount of push at any given time that would be invariable at any distance between objects, and so could continually tend to bring about an overall uniformity of matter/energy distribution.

   There can be considered problems with cosmic inflation in that there is no sufficient theoretical explanation of why it occurred in the first instance.  Also, Roger Penrose has argued that, given the presumed effect of inflation is a thermalizing or explosive process producing increasing entropy,^[13] there would be more disorder as the universe expands, rather than more uniformity in accordance with the second law of thermodynamics.  Another difficulty is that inflation does not solve the problem of how the universal expansion has been measured to be accelerating.  Then again, there are the findings of the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe that, rather than detecting overall uniformity, has measured an overall preferred direction or axis in the radiation produced by the early universe when it first became atomic^[14]. We also consider it questionable that a faster than light expansion was possible in principle given relativity, and whereby the acceleration of matter up to the speed of light is unobtainable since it would require infinite energy.

    Instead, we find reasons from the available evidence to propose the following Big Bang theory.

1.      The driving force of the universal expansion and its acceleration is the nonlocally acting cause.   This is an outwardly pushing cause that would reduce in strength as the universe expands and increases in volume, but at a slower rate than the inward pull of gravity, and so the cause would begin to exert an acceleration on the expansion after some 6 billion years.  One reason to consider that this is so would be if, given our quantum hypothesis as justified and visualised in 2.1.2 below, the quantum wave is the cause of Big Bang expansion universalised. While the electron’s wave property would need to exert a powerful outward resistance to the inward pull of the powerful electromagnetic force.  We also find that we are able to develop a cosmological nonlocal causal theory for the quantum wave.

2.      Because of the Relativity Principle the rate of the overall early universal expansion is limited to the speed of light and thus the contents of the universe spiral out against this speed limitation. So that the trajectories of matter particles would curve against the outward direction of expansion as their mass increases due to their relative speeds.  We cite as evidence for this spiral formation the preferred direction of the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR).  We also cite the CMBR image produced by the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe as revealing evidence of a spiral arm.

So in the above image the more energy dense areas are coloured in red, yellow and green, and the preferred direction of energy is thus visible by the right hand side containing more red, yellow and green than the left side.  And also, the largest and most energetic area of all in the image is of a narrow tapering form pointing from near the right hand edge towards the lower centre, thus:

 

So we can reasonably think that at the era of recombination the WMAP findings suggest that the universe was still of a markedly spiral form.  There is also astronomical evidence of a large and very early cosmic void that could be about a billion light years across. We consider that such a void could indicate a gap between spiral arms.  But due to expansion the universal spiral form would become progressively more open, as well as less marked as result of the overall action of the nonlocal cause. So that later evidence of an overall universal spiral shaped universe would be indiscernible.

    Here we shall also develop a theory that centres upon the evolution of galaxies and larger scale structure.   Essential to this theory is the postulate that a nonlocal spiralling causation is extra-dimensionally universalized both on the quantum and astronomical scale, and thus producing both the quantum wave property and acting as a template for the formation and conservation of the spiral structure of galaxies.

2.1.2 Quantum wave behaviour

From our extra-dimensional representation of a cause of quantum entanglement we could extrapolate that a cause acting from a single additional spatial dimension could universalise an ether-like but immaterial quantum wave producing medium.  Then we considered some evidence suggesting that the contents of the early universe spiralled out against the inward pull of gravity.  For this spiralling to produce quantum wave behaviour we need to assume that this spiralling radiated out spherically in all directions at least to a distance of the longest wavelengths of radiation.  Such a causal form could produce wave behaviour at all known wavelengths and all directions of travel, as well as the different kinds of polarisation.  We can also consider how the causation would reduce in energy as it radiates outward and thus could be consistent with the energy/wavelength relation.  We can represent a spiralling early universe schematically as in figure 3.

    Pilot wave theory visualises the travelling quantum object as a particle or point object with a definite trajectory that is accompanied by a lateral wave front that can extend indefinitely.  Although multidimensional configuration space is needed to describe waves for a many-particle beam, a single travelling particle-wave can be described three dimensionally.   So we can picture a single travelling quantum object as in Figure 4.

 

 We can consider the sphere of the quantum wave front is governed by the spherical spiral cause radiating out from the source of the particle wave, while the extent of the wave is produced by the interconnectedness of the universalised spiral causation.  Thus a schematic two dimensional representation of a single travelling particle/wave can be pictured as in figure 5.

 

For the sake of clarity figure 5 does not fully picture the causal spirals since these would each radiate out indefinitely but the interconnectedness of the causation can thus be illustrated.  We can think of the initial energetic conditions on the emission of the photon defining the wave’s length, which would then be conserved over indefinite distances.  Also, circular, elliptical and plain wave polarization can be conserved until it is changed by physical conditions. Spiraling causation can also explain the increasing wave height of radiation as this is pushed out over astronomical distances as measured by stellar interferometry.

 

 

3.0 Outline of a cosmological theory

3.1 From inflation to a nonlocal theory

We have described an early universe where the expansion is produced by the nonlocal cause.  Although the outward push of the cause is always stronger than the inward pull of gravity, like the gravitational pull, the outward causal push reduces in strength, comparable to a gas in an expanding container, as the volume of universe increases. We have postulated that the overall uniformity in the distribution of matter and energy could be explained by universal instantaneous nonlocal action at any distance.  We can also assume that the universal flatness of space-time is the result of this nonlocal action.  So a constant outwardly pushing cause that acts universally with equal strength at any given time can be thought of as flattening out the universe as is it expands.

    Inflation theory was developed initially to explain the infrequency of particles called monopoles.  But these are only theoretical objects for which there is no evidence of their existence.   Inflation does not solve the problem of antimatter, while it is thought that present predominance of matter is due to there being more matter than antimatter initially but with no definite explanation of why this should be so.  Antiparticles were predicted by quantum mechanics and have been produced in high energy collisions both by cosmic rays and in experiments.  But in a nonlocal causal theory we can consider that a very powerful pressure exerted around particles by the nonlocal cause in the very early universe could have prevented the initial formation of any antiparticles.     

    In a nonlocal theory an exponentially accelerating inflationary period in the very early universe when the cosmos was a small fraction of a second old, and during which structure formation is seeded by quantum fluctuations, can be deemed unnecessary. Instead we shall outline a theory in which the formation of galaxies and larger scale structure results from the nonlocal extra-dimensional universalization of the spiralling early universe.  So that the energy density variations or anisotropy measured in the CMBR could have begun to occur in the process of recombination when matter first became atomic and not necessarily before this period.

   

3.2 The evolution of galaxies and larger scale structure

Just after recombination, when it was some 380,000 years old, the universe can be described as consisting of an almost uniform gas made very largely of hydrogen and helium.  The gas would be rapidly dispersing and diminishing in overall density in the fast expanding universe.  We can consider that at this earliest gaseous stage matter was dispersing too quickly for protogalaxies to start forming.  But the nonlocal cause in this early atomic period could still have had a universalised strong large scale outward push action on the gas, and with the effect of punching spherical holes that expand from immaterial centres, and thus beginning to produce the cosmic void spongiform large scale structure of the later universe.  This process would have squeezed together the gas around adjacent proto-voids, and the coalescing of this gas - plus gravity and the spiral nonlocal causation now acting on gas of increasing density - would allow protogalaxies to form. 

    With the present seeding theory produced by inflation there is problem explaining the recent observations indicating that galaxies formed after just 600 million years and quasars have been observed that would have formed after about 1,100 million years.  Whereas, with an additional nonlocal cause, the rapidity of this formation becomes more understandable.  A spiralling non-local causation could also be thought to produce density variations within protogalaxies to form the first stars. Whereas there is a problem in explaining how the first stars formed given just the action of gravity with no exploding stars to produce concentrations of matter, and the spiralling nonlocal causation can be thought to play a role in all star formation.  Also, such causation within proto-galaxies as a whole would be stronger towards their centres and so could more quickly form the large very dense central structures needed for quasars to develop.  The evidence indicates that most galaxies each possess a single very massive central black hole, and the strong central action of a spiral causation acting with gravity could account for this.  We are not able to tell whether or in what proportion the central black hole consists of stars.

    There is a wide variation in the spiral form of galaxies and explaining all the varieties can be considered problematic given just the large scale action of gravity.  So there is the question of why, in particular, the spiral formation occurred in the first instance and given that a proportion of disc galaxies, called S0’s have no visible spiral arms.

.  A general problem also arises of how the spiral arms are retained over time.  So that a density wave theory has been developed but there remains the question of explaining the input of energy that would be required to produce the wave. Then there is the need to account for the rotation curves of all disc galaxies, and for which yet to be directly detected or identified non-baryonic dark matter has been postulated to account for the too rapid outer galactic rotation rate of the visible material.  The detection of the appropriate kind of dark matter would not explain the retention of galactic spiral arms, and no current theory of the retention of the spiral arms explains their origin, whereas the thought could be that a successful theory of the formation and form of galaxies would explain all three features, plus the variation in their spiral structure and the formation of the central bulge. 

    In the early universe we can think that the time at which proto-galaxies formed would vary according to the varying initial density of the primeval gas as indicated by the CMB measurements and observations of the earliest galaxies.  We can consider how much of the variation in galactic structure could be the result of different formation times.  

    So one varying feature that is described by the classification of galaxies is the degree of openness of the spiral arms, including those disc shaped galaxies where there is no visible spiralling.  And we can consider how this variation could arise given the spiral formation is the result of an extra-dimensional universalization of the spiralling early cosmos.  So the thought could be that as the universe expands its spiral would become more open.  Thus we can surmise that the earliest galaxies, when the spiralling causation was at its densest, would those disc galaxies with no visible spiral structure, which are called lenticular and are classified as S0 galaxies.  And indicating this early formation is the fact that S0 galaxies consist of older stars and no visible gas. 

    Also, we can deduce that the evolution of the early universe from its beginning would need to have been from an all-directional spherical spiral, to explain quantum wave behaviour, to a one directional spiral, to explain the preferred direction of the CMB and its spiral arm.  Almost all spiral galaxies possess a central bulge that varies in size, so that S0 galaxies possess proportionately the largest bulge and the most open armed galaxies the smallest.  This variation could be explained given that the larger proportion of the cosmos could have been spherical in the earlier universe.  So the form of disc galaxies from S0’s to the most open spirals or Sd’s can be regarded as being a reflection of the evolution of the form of the universe as a whole, although this would not be reflected in the narrowness of the spiral arms of open armed galaxies, which would be a gravitational effect.  Those spiral galaxies with no visible bulge could be the result of their small bulges having been completely consumed by their central black holes.

  Another supporting factor for the spiral variation according to time of formation is that most open armed spiral galaxies are less massive than less open ones.  So that the stronger action of gravity would mean that the more massive galaxies would form earlier.  There are more massive open armed galaxies but their openness could be a gravitational effect of other nearby galaxies pulling the arms apart in the early in the process of galaxy formation.

    A common classified feature of spiral galaxies is a central bar the proportional length of which varies from galaxy to galaxy.  A bar has been observed in rather more than half of spirals, while the openness of their spiral arms varies in the same way as unbarred spirals. There is at present no widely agreed explanation for the existence of the central bar.  But given our theory of the initial formation of cosmic voids we can suggest that barred spirals could have formed as the result of this process.  Thus as the voids enlarge the protogalactic gas is squeezed into concentrated forms, which the spiral nonlocal cause starts to form into proto-galaxies while the voids continue to enlarge.  The void enlargement, plus the gravitational attraction between the proto-galaxies that form close enough together in large enough clouds, stretches them into bars, which then separate.  By the time of separation many stars could have formed towards the bar centres, while by being less dense, the ends of the bars would remain gaseous.  The spiral cause could then turn the freed bar ends into spiral arms that can form into stars while a central bar of stars would remain.  The length of the bar could vary according to the rate at which the protogalaxy is stretched, the slower the rate the longer the bar. So that more stars would have time to form in the bar over the longer time period.  To explain unbarred galaxies many gas clouds need not be large enough to form into more than one protogalaxy, or the protogalaxies could have separated too quickly for any visible bar to form. 

    Spirals are the commonest form of large galaxy, while the commonest of all types of galaxy are the ellipticals.  Both the size and mass of ellipticals differ more than any other type of galaxy, and we can consider there are two different ways in which they could form.  So, as in current theory, large ellipticals are the result of gravitational effects from other galaxies either by collision or by their close proximity to other galaxies.  Thus large ellipt-icals are much more common in rich clusters and the largest are found in the centre of these clusters and can be detected to possess more than one dense centre.  Whereas given our theory dwarf ellipticals can be regarded as late formed galaxies occurring when the spiral causation was no longer strong enough to produce the spiral formation, but while the spherically spiralling centre of the cause was still strong enough to produce small elliptical proto-galaxies.  And it is has been noted that dwarf elliptical galaxies do resemble the central bulges of spiral galaxies.

    Finally there are galaxies that have no spiral or elliptical structure, which are called irregular.  The larger irregulars could be the result of external gravitational influences from other galaxies.  But we can consider that many dwarf irregulars could be the last type of galaxy to form, the spiral cause not being strong enough by then to produce and maintain any regular formation.  Dwarf irregulars could have formed later than the larger galaxies, out of wisps of gas left over from the formation of the larger ones, and irregulars do consist largely of younger stars. 

    One kind of evidence that is presently cited as support for the existence of dark matter is the lensing effect produced by galaxies that distort and magnify the images of more distant galaxies in visual alignment with them.  The lensing is consistent with the gravitational effect that is predicted by general relativity but is much stronger than would occur given the mass of visible matter of the lensing galaxies.  So it is assumed the additional effect is produced by dark matter.  Whereas we can suggest that a nonlocal cause of electromagnetic wave behaviour could produce large scale effects on the paths of radiation around galaxies given that it is this causation rather than dark matter that produces the anomalous rotation curves of spiral galaxies.  So that such a causation that is strong enough to produce the additional rate of rotation of the outer realms of galaxies can be thought to have a large effect on the path of radiation passing around galaxies just as much as would the postulated presence of dark matter.

    More evidence can be cited in support of our nonlocal cosmology from a chapter in the theoretical physicist Lee Smolin’s book The Trouble with Physics^[15].   Smolin describes a relationship that has been found between galaxy rotation and the rate of acceleration in the expansion of the universe first measured in 1998^[16].  So that in 1983 the physicist Mordehai Milgrom proposed an alternative theory to dark matter to account for galaxy rotation curve anomaly.^[17]  Milgrom found that the point from the centre where the rotation rate of galaxies diverges from Newton’s inverse square law is in many cases a certain rate of orbital acceleration.  And consistent with the rotation rates beyond this point is the reduction of the strength of gravity according to distance rather than the inverse square of distance.  Milgrom could thus argue that Newton’s law needed to be modified, although this modification does not work well for the collective behaviour of galaxies in relation to one another.  But the remarkable finding is that the point of divergence in the rate of orbital acceleration in galaxies coincides more or less exactly with the rate of the universal acceleration.

    Given our theory that the spiral form of galaxies is produced and maintained by the extra-dimensional nonlocal action reflected from a spiralling early universe, we can propose that this coincidence of accelerations is best explained by our theory.  So the universalised action of the accelerating universe exerts an equivalent additional acceleration on the rotation of galaxies. Whereas while there is an argument for the modification of the inverse square law, Smolin points to the major theoretical problems with such a modification that is not needed given a nonlocally caused explanation.  Rather, we can consider that an additional nonlocal cause that is only strong enough to produce measurable effects beyond a certain point when gravity is sufficiently weak is consistent with the measured evidence of galaxy rotation.  While the original Newtonian dynamics with its inverse square law would still apply if it was not for the additional action of the nonlocal cause.

 

3.2.1 The form and formation of planetary systems

Smolin also describes the measured anomalies in the speed of the space probes Pioneer 10 and 11 as they travel beyond the outermost reaches of the solar system, which is difficult to explain as resulting from dark matter. Yet the Pioneer anomaly, as a too rapid velocity where the action of gravity is weak, is comparable to that of galactic rotation.  Whereas we can propose that the Pioneer anomaly is evidence that the spiralling nonlocal cause was involved in the formation of the solar system. 

    We have suggested that the evidence of galaxy formation indicates that the action of the nonlocal cause was only strong enough to produce regular shaped galaxies up to a certain stage in the evolution of the cosmos, and beyond that galaxies are irregular.  Similarly, we can propose that the recent evidence of eccentric orbits of a large proportion of exoplanets detected around stars indicates that the formation of regular planetary systems, like spiral galaxies, only took place within a certain period.  And the spacing in the orbits of the solar planets is consistent with a logarithmic spiral.  Whereas if earlier star formations were similar in form to S0 galaxies, the surrounding disc of gas and dust need not have separated out into planets.  This would mean planetary systems that are similar to the solar system would be less common but that they could have formed at a similar time.  And the spiral form of a proto-planetary system could mean other systems forming at a similar time to the solar system are more likely to result in Earth-like planets orbiting at an appropriate distance from the central star for life to evolve.  This theory could be tested by observation if the age of stars with various planetary systems could be accurately estimated.

 

3.2.2 Suggested experimental test of nonlocal cosmology

It has been argued that Pioneer anomaly could be due to factors that include the particular design of both space vehicles.  We suggest that the anomaly could be tested not necessarily by more space probes sent to the outer reaches of the solar system, but by putting a vehicle in orbit at an appropriate distance around Saturn or Jupiter.  That is, where the strength of the gravitational pull from these planets is similar to that exerted by the sun on the Pioneer spacecraft.  Thus in our theory the alignment of the rings of Saturn and the less visible ones observed around other gas giants could be the result of nonlocal causation in a similar way to the formation of the whole solar system and disc galaxies.  While such rings may not occur around the inner planets because the sun’s gravity would be strong enough to disrupt any such formation. Whereas Pioneer-like anomalies could be measurable from the motion of artificial satellites around the outer but not the inner planets,

 

3.3 Stellar energy and the nonlocal cause

The capacity of the nonlocal cause to produce and conserve the form of spiral galaxies and produce planetary systems would require a considerable input of energy.  So we can ask whether this cause can provide an additional source of energy input within stars. The physics of stars has been well developed without any need to postulate the input of any energy in addition to that produced by nuclear fusion.  Evidence for stars producing any more energy than predicted by current theory would therefore not be obvious.  But we can cite one problem concerning the sun’s energy output that has yet to be definitely resolved: this is extreme heat of the sun’s corona. 

   So we can consider that there is as yet no sufficient explanation of why the temperature of the external corona around the sun is measured to be at least a million degrees Kelvin, and far hotter than the sun’s surface.  Here we are unable to present a detailed nonlocal theory.  But we consider the coronal heat is extra-dimensionally transferred from the very early universe, while its effect could be much more marked beyond the surface of the sun, partly for similar reasons to the cause being only strong enough to produce measurable effects on the orbital motion of the outer matter of spiral galaxies.  So the nonlocal effect could still be significant within the sun and stronger as it approaches the sun’s centre, but would be much stronger in the much less dense area beyond and around the sun’s surface.

    We can also suggest that the sun could be acted upon by nonlocal causation if there are properties indicating that it is a composite system, like an atom or molecule. Just the facts that a star is a discrete natural object that is made of many natural components and, overall, is acted upon by a force – gravity in this case - suggests that it could a composite system.  And we have provided reasons to think that all stars could have initially formed with the aid of the nonlocal cause acting in addition to gravity. While another indication of composite solar properties could be the regular eleven year cycle of sun spot activity, as well other periodic solar effects that coincide with the sun spot cycle, such as the varying number of filaments, solar flares and coronal mass ejections.

     Ever since the second law of thermodynamics was first deduced there has been no effective argument against the inevitability, in the long term, of a dying universe from the heat loss that the second law describes. Although atoms seem to defy the law, and a theory that the proton decays has yet to be confirmed after nearly three decades of experimentation.  However, atoms have no process of emitting energy like stars, and there is much astronomical evidence of all the stages of stellar life cycles, so that detailed accounts can be given of the red giant and white dwarf later stages after they have emitted vast amounts of irretrievable energy.  Even so, given the universal action of an additional nonlocal cause, an alternative to universal heat death becomes at least conceivable.  Thus reasons can be found to ask: Could the universe be evolving into a self-perpetuating composite system on the grand scale?  So even though many stars may have died out in the past, we can imagine an evolving process whereby some stars could become perpetual energy generators as the energy input of the nonlocal cause increases.

    So given our theory, we can think of a nonlocal cause being a nonlocal energy generator, in that its action would not be confined to single bodies like the locally acting forces. In which case, under certain conditions, the source of nonlocal stellar energy could be transmitted from place to place extra-dimensionally.  We have described how in the process of their formation, a nonlocal spiral cause could produce black holes at the centre of galaxies.  The mass of these bodies could be millions, even billions of suns, the mass varying in proportion to the overall mass of the galaxy. 

    So it could be asked: where does all the energy confined in these super-massive bodies go to?  Could the energy be transferred extra-dimensionally into stars?  The mass of these dark bodies and their energy would also steadily increase over billions of years until it could be sufficient to take over from nuclear fusion generation in the remaining stars.  Meanwhile another source of increased stellar energy input could be the process whereby, after a certain stage, more stars in the universe should be dying out than are being born.  So that the remaining nonlocal energy input to the still radiating stars could become more concentrated into fewer bodies.  The total additional energy may not be enough to prevent stars much more massive than the sun from dying out due to the strength of their own gravity.  But less massive stars, including the sun, that emit less fusion energy over a longer periods could become perpetually radiating bodies. And the universe would contain a great many stars that have reached the white dwarf and neutron star stages, there would many remaining stars that remain as yellow stars in virtue of their being acted upon extra- dimensionally.  And the energy emitted by these stars could continue to be recycled indefinitely via the supermassive black holes at the centres of galaxies producing extra-dimensional stellar energy inputs. 

   Then also, given that our account of the form conserving cause acting on the astronomical scale is correct, we can also conclude that the extra spatial dimensions allows the cosmos to be self-organising in a way that counters the second law of thermodynamics.  This is not to say that the entropy law does not apply universally, but we can point out that the law only applies, to isolated systems, whereby such a body always loses energy. Whereas with large scale extra dimensions containing a unifying cause, galaxies and stars become nonlocally connected with an extra input of energy.

  So given the action of an extra-dimensional, nonlocally acting, form conserving cause, we can conceive that the universe as a whole is purposeful.  The cosmos being a composite system that serves to perpetuate many of the composite systems it contains: beginning with atomic nuclei and then atoms in the early universe, then molecules and then, after billions of years, galaxies of stars, which can possess planetary systems that serve to perpetuate living composites through the survival of species of organisms.

 

4.0 Atoms, molecules, living organisms and the nonlocal cause

By deducing and visually representing a nonlocally acting cause of quantum entangle-ment that would act from a fourth and fifth dimension of space, we were able to make two extrapolations.   One was that a cause acting from one additional dimension of space could provide a quantum wave producing causal medium that pervades all three dimensional space. This medium was then visualised as originating from the Big Bang as a spiralling process, and this was developed into an outline of a nonlocal cosmological theory.

     The other extrapolation was of a cause acting from two extra spatial dimensions that could act so as to conserve all composites of two or more subatomic components.  The two additional spatial dimensions were initially deduced from a need to causally explain both entangled composite and non-entangled simple quantum behaviour.  So we conceived that a single extra dimension would be sufficient for a cause of wave and spin, whereas there needed to be an additional mechanism to produce a nonlocal relationship between the behaviour of quantum objects that is measured as a correlation.  We therefore deduced that a fifth spatial dimension could contain a cause that conserves this entangled relationship.   We can then deduce that a cause relating from this fifth dimension could also act upon an indefinite number of sub-causes that could act so as conserve any number of types of composite.  So there could be a fourth dimensional sub-cause for each of every element and compound of matter.  Following from figure 2 above we can thus represent a cause acting from two extra dimension to conserve any four types of material composite, including species of living organisms, as in figure 6.

 

    We also deduced that another property could be described of a nonlocally acting cause.  So we could describe quantum entanglement as occurring because there needs to be cause that conserves the measured relationship of behaviour at a distance between quantum objects, such as that of spin up to spin down of electrons in the singlet state.  And given the reality of the quantum wave property, we can describe the wave of the electron as acting so as to conserve the forms of atoms and molecules by preventing electrons from falling into atomic nuclei and electrons being affected by their mutual repulsion as outer subatomic components.

    Now we can consider how both the form conserving property and the extra-dimensional property could be related to living organisms as composite systems and their bodily behaviour.  So we can begin by extrapolating from atoms and molecule to organisms just in relation to the form conserving causal property.  

 

4.1 The behaviour of organisms and the form conserving cause

In our nonlocal extra-dimensional theory we have described each single sub-cause as acting so to perpetuate a particular type of composite as an element or compound of matter, and each individual atom or molecule could, in principle, last indefinitely, and if destroyed under certain conditions, individuals can easily reform, and the form conserving cause would be involved in this reforming.  

     We can then consider a “primeval soup” where, perhaps more than 3.5 billion years ago on Earth, complex organic molecules were evolving into the first organisms.   This abio-genesis can be thought of as a long process whereby the right kind of molecules form and combine to eventually develop into composite phenomena that could be described as living.

    Like all subsequent living organisms the first to evolve would be highly susceptible to destruction and would need to be able to avoid as far as possible any threat to their survival.  Thus we can think that the means of individual survival was provided by a form conserving cause that acts so as to promote the perpetuation of all evolved types of composite system.   In living organisms we can consider the means of survival requires an inner sensitivity that warns the organism of survival threats and by which it is attracted sources of nutrition, and also the bodily behavioural means to survive.  Then there is also the fact that there is no way that any organisms can re-form like inanimate matter and thus they need to reproduce to survive collectively as a species. 

    On the molecular scale, the reproduction process is complex for any living organism and thus the capacity to reproduce is not easily explained just as the outcome of a random development of evolution.  We can consider that, rather than a random process, the possibility of the evolutionary development of a reproductive capacity makes more sense given the universal action of a cause that conserves the composite form of the various species of organisms.   Thus the action of this cause could give the evolutionary process towards a reproductive capacity a certain overall direction, and would guide the process towards a capacity to reproduce the same type of organism. This guidance would be analogous to that of the pilot wave but on a more complex level. As this cause acts collectively upon each type of living organisms we shall call it a species form conserving cause. Similarly we can suggest a species form conserving cause implies that there is more to the general evolutionary process than chance natural selection.  So the cause could ensure that mutations with physical attributes that make them more likely to survive environmental changes are more common than others. 

    A species form conserving cause can also be related to all the behaviour of more complex organisms where this can be described as actions that promote the conservation of species.  So once multi-celled animals evolve, many species develop behaviour that protects their young, and also, collective community behaviour that protects large groups of organisms.  Many animal species evolve so that individuals can only survive as members of communities.  And so that the survival of large collections of individuals are dependent on communal behaviour that is consistently species form conserving.

     By this definition, human society is dependent upon species form conserving behaviour as well as having moral or ethical beliefs and language that could be described as form conserving.  So that where they can be regarded as moral judgements the terms ‘good’ and ‘bad’ or ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ can be described as form conserving.  While by being aware of all known species and with a desire to conserve the natural environment in general, potentially, human beings could be uniquely described as universal form conservers.

4.2 The mind, consciousness and an extra-dimensional form conserving cause

There is little evidence to suggest that the mind and consciousness are anything other than individual phenomena arising from the body as emergent properties.  And, given an empirical understanding of the world as universally consisting just of particles and forces, there is no sufficient rational argument against the proposal that the mind does not really exist as anything distinct from the body.  Although it could just be wondered how it is that there are all these thoughts, feelings and perceptions that are entirely private to the individual.  Thus all that can be observed of the brain that has these thoughts feelings and perceptions is grey matter and on the small scale brain cells.  And the most advanced technology can only detect electrical activity and images that represent what occurs in the brain.  So that even if such technology could read the particular thoughts, feelings and perceptions of an individual these would not be as they are subjectively thought, felt or perceived by the individual.

    Then there is a problem that, it seems, cannot be resolved by any means, which is how what occurs in the brain is translated or transformed into the experience of consciousness.  So the facts that neither the mind nor consciousness nor that which turns brain activity into consciousness is anything that can be observed and are unique to living organisms can be considered as reasons to believe that what produces consciousness should be something that is distinct and invisible.

    Given anything invisible that can be described as acting in three dimensional space, however, like gravity or electro-magnetism, there is a problem of how there could be more than one such entity with certain universal properties.  So, unless there were such invisible causes with different general properties, there can only described one thing called gravity or the electromagnetic force.  Whereas there would need to be as many invisible minds or experiencing subjects or things that produce consciousness as there are phenomena with some kind of sensory experience. However, given a universal extra-dimensional cause acting upon living organisms, as we have represented it diagrammatically, this would be one thing given the extra spatial dimensions but also many things which are the subjects of experiencing organisms in the three dimensional world experienced. 

     This collective extra-dimensional conception of the mind as invisible cause also solves the problem of the indivisibility of consciousness.  So the thought can be that by having a single body, the individual can have only one unique experience and point of view on the world from this body.  So if it is imagined that one’s body could physically divide amoeba-like into two experiencing individuals then one can imagine that one would still experience the world from the point of view of either one or the other individual.  But both individuals were parts of my body before division then. logically, I should now experience from the points of view of both individuals at once.  So how is it that the other separated part of my body is not me? 

    But the amoeba naturally divides to reproduce and live independently and each responds appropriately to its own unique environment, which it needs to be able to do to survive, and so can be thought to require some kind of inner sensitivity as a form of consciousness.  Thus it reasonably follows that any living organism could, in principle, divide into two independently experiencing individuals. While in our visual representation of the extra-dimensional cause as a collective species mind or experiencing subject, it can be seen how the indivisibility of consciousness is possible, as in Figure 7. 

    So here are represented four members of a species of single celled organism as two dimensional objects acted upon by a single extra-dimensional cause in just the same way as a fourth dimensional form conserving cause would act upon four atoms or molecules of an element or compound.  Except that we have pictured one of the organisms in the process of reproducing itself by division into two living individuals.  While such a process leaves the extra-dimensional species cause undivided and singular. Such a singular consciousness producing cause thus allows the two physically separated organisms to each retain a singular and unique sensory vantage point as a three dimensional individual in a perceived world with three spatial dimensions.

   So we can think the experience of conscious-ness is objectively inaccessible because thoughts, feelings and perceptions are, in a sense, experienced from the inaccessible extra-dimensional side to the objective body and the world that exists just in three dimensional space.  We can also describe the experience of consciousness arising from what occurs in the body impinging upon an extra-dimensional cause that conserves the overall form of the body. Although any more detail of how the actual translation occurs from bodily states to the mental states of consciousness we still find inaccessible. 

     One immediate question arises from this extra-dimensional collective conception of mind, which is how is it that there is not a great deal of telepathic communication between individuals of the same species?

    From the quantum experimental evidence one argument could be that no telepathic commun-ication would be possible for the same reason that no communication is possible via any quantum entanglement effect.  This is because in quantum experiments entanglement can only be measured and described by examining the statistical correlation between two separated components of a single entangled system.  But we consider the key factor preventing telepathic communication between individuals is the local sensory vantage point of each organism as this governs the unique and complex on-going physiological processes required for the conscious experience of each individual.  So while nonlocal connections can be reliably measured between simple systems of inanimate matter, these systems do not possess anything equivalent to an organic inner sensitivity that is unique to each individual.  Although the possibility that nonlocal connections could occur under certain conditions could not be ruled out.  And given that such connections would occur via the species form conserving cause we think that they would be related to the survival of species.

    Our species form conserving theory is thus consistent with much of the formative causation hypothesis of the biologist Rupert Sheldrake^[18].  He argues that the genetic explanation of the species evolution, physical development and instinctive behaviour is inadequate. So that, in addition to genetic influences, Sheldrake proposes there would need to be a formative causation to explain, for example, the cellular diversification involved in the overall development of the organism.  The causation is conceived of as a kind of nonlocal memory of past forms of a given species that guide the process of development of new individuals. We can explain this guidance memory as resulting from the action of the species form conserving cause as a collective memory. Sheldrake also cites evidence that formative causation applies to the chemical production of new materials.  Thus he tells of incidents where, once a new material is produced in one laboratory, it becomes easier to produce the same material quite independently in other laboratories.  And we can imagine that such a process could have been an aid to the evolution of the first organisms.  Perhaps many of the same type of organism emerged spontaneously before they were able to reproduce themselves by division.

    But perhaps the most crucial questions that can be asked concerning this extra-dimensional causal configuration is whether or not and, if so how the experience of the individual survives beyond death. To which we can reply, given the subject of experience as an extra-dimensional species form conserving cause this is the one part of all members of a species such as human beings that survives as long as the species survive.  So the dying of any individual member of a species would represent an extinguishing of just one of many unique points of view of the world from a single shared species mind. While the birth of a new individual represents the emergence of a new unique point view of the world from the same continually shared species mind.

   Thus it makes sense to consider that the human individual’s experience continues beyond death in the birth of a new human individual.  This survival of consciousness need not be thought of in any way as the survival of one’s past individual identity. But rather, what survives is just one’s conscious human identity provided by a single, purely immaterial, extra-dimensionally shared subject of experience, which is also the human species form conserving cause.  So by being in their present lives as experiencing human individuals all could also think of themselves as being inextricably parts of the collective human experience as long as the human species continues to survive.

    The question then arises as to what would happen if, somehow, the human species became extinct. And the thought could be that, via the connection with the fifth dimensional universal cause, one’s identity may revert to that of a surviving species that is physically nearest to human beings in evolutionary terms.  Although on planets around stars other than the sun, there is the possibility that beings could have evolved that are physically more similar to the human species than any other living on Earth.  So given that the action of fifth dimensional cause connects to the whole universe, it is conceivable that human extinction could mean a transfer of identity to such an extra-terrestrial human-like species.

    Given the survival the living individual’s species experience by rebirth via the species form conserving cause, we can note there is now a real motive for species form conserving behaviour. And by being aware of the survival of their human experience on we can say that human behaviour that is constructive rather than destructive makes the most sense in the long run from the point of view of the self-interested individual.  But perhaps most of all, an account indicating the universal action of an extra-dimensional form conserving cause finally gives a scientific account of a universe that is ultimately of enough purpose and significance from a human point of view, and thus constructive and protective actions have sufficient value in themselves

 

Summary and conclusions

We suggested there are universal and funda-mental problems of explaining the existence and natural organisation of matter that cannot be resolved just by considering any of the experimental evidence found on the scale of photons, atoms, molecules and their subatomic components. So that there is no way of demonstrating whether or not and, if so, how the quantum wave exists as a real property that causes quantum behaviour or how quantum entanglement is possible.  Thus there are, in particular, two conflicting kinds of interpret-ation of the quantum evidence: one which postulates the behaviour that can be uniquely observed or measured of quantum objects to be indeterminate beyond the experimental results and whereby it can be argued that quantum behaviour is inherently probabilistic, Heisenberg’s uncertainty relations apply to objects in motion and that the quantum wave property is not real.  And the other kind of interpretation postulates that quantum objects have definable and determinate trajectories while in motion, that the probabilities and uncertainties in quantum behaviour are just unavoidable limitations of measurement and the quantum wave is a real and distinct cause of quantum behaviour.  Both interpretations are consistent with a wide range of experimental evidence and neither has been clearly demonstrated to be true or proved false from the quantum evidence alone.

    Whereas we stated our intention to be the justification and development of a unique quantum hypothesis which only thus allows the development of a general causal theory that could be clearly supported by available larger scale natural evidence. Thus no reason may be found to consider that any of the present causal interpretations could be supported by any large scale natural evidence.  This hypothesis requir-ing a unique and unorthodox method of describing and visually representing a cause and may initially be regarded as highly improbable or speculative. Also, even when developed, that this hypothesis can be clearly related to large scale natural evidence is not obvious.  Thus we have suggested this quantum cause and effect account requires detailed support from a quite new kind of cosmology where gravity is no longer the only invisible cause that produces large scale effects. The development of a theory of living organisms and their behaviour that needs to be justified by considering certain features of mind and consciousness including problems that have been little discussed outside academic philosophy.  

    For the development of our theory we assumed at the outset that a determinate causal interpretation such as the Pilot Wave or de Broglie-Bohm theory is correct.  But whereas this kind of causal interpretation has centred upon a mathematical cause and effect account of the quantum wave property, we began our development of a quantum hypothesis with diagrammatic illustrations of a cause of quantum entanglement, which was supported by  verbally described causal property.  And although, when compared to any effect of a force, it can seem that quantum entanglement especially has no cause, we found that just the two causal properties described from this effect apply universally to the evidence we examine and provide the essential basis for a general theory.  

   We discussed a problem that is shared by the indeterminate and determinate, Pilot Wave, interpretations: the need to use mathematical formalism of multidimensional vector space to describe the inseparability or nonlocality of quantum behaviour.  So that Hilbert space is used by standard quantum theory for entangled composite systems and configuration space is required to describe the wave property for particle ensembles in Pilot wave theory.  The mathematics of vector space requires that the spatial dimensions should multiply for each additional component of an atomic system   And as the 1935 EPR paper pointed out, the measurement of components of composite quantum systems implied instantaneous action at any distance between particles.  Such an effect thus at least seeming to conflict with relativity and could not be explained by the action of any known force.

    In our hypothesis we suggest that there is no prior argument against the existence of a cause acting invisibly from real additional spatial dimensions to produce the wave property and entanglement.  Thus there would be nothing that could be observed of such dimensions that just contained an invisible cause, and given that only the nonlocal cause would act from the extra dimensions, the inverse square law would still apply to gravity and electro-magnetism by their acting only in three dimensional space.  Also, given that the relativity principle and gravity applying only to four dimensional space time this would reconcile quantum inseparability and instantaneous action at any distance. So that relativity implies that the relative motion of matter creates spacetime, whereas by containing no matter it can be said that there is no time in the extra spatial dimensions, and thus the entanglement effect takes no time to occur.  Also, given that the effect would be instantaneous under all conditions of relative motion, there could be no backwards in time signalling paradox.

     We related how in 1964 Bell’s theorem showed how, contrary to the conclusions of EPR paper, any hidden variables  interpretation required nonlocality and made possible practical experiments to test the locality or otherwise of quantum entanglement.  From 1982 on such experiments could measure entangled cor-relations at faster than the speed of light at distances up to 144 kilometres between photons. 

    Although we suggested that a wide ranging theoretical account is needed for it to be accepted as a natural explanation, we found that the key properties of a nonlocally acting cause can be simply justified and described from the evidence of quantum entanglement.  So by assuming that all causes need to act like the forces or interactions already described in physics the conclusion can be that quantum entanglement is not the effect of any cause, and it could be asked how could a cause produce any effect that has no measurable strength and could not be described as, in some way, pushing or pulling objects? 

    Yet we had initially considered that the form and organisation of matter could not be explained by describing the known properties of, in particular, electromagnetism.  But instead it could be asked: What causes electrons to resist the action of this force and remain naturally organised as components of atoms and molecules as described by the Pauli exclusion principle?  And we could consider how a property could be described of a cause of quantum entanglement whereby its effect would be that quantum objects remain in their relationship of behaviour of spin up to spin down or opposite polarisation.  This being a cause that would need to maintain or conserve the entangled relationship, and given that this property can be reasonably described indicates that cause with this property should exist, and needs to act upon quantum objects for entanglement to be measured.  This being so even if the relationship between quantum objects can only be measured as a correlation, and given a causal interpretation it can be considered that the fact that the entangled relationship cannot always be measured may be regarded just as an experimental limitation of this measurement.  And especially in the case of electron pairs when atomic components we can reasonably assume that spin-up spin-down entanglement is a permanent and necessary feature of all atoms. 

    Given that entanglement is an invariable effect at any distance then any cause could not be said to surround objects.  And given that no physical barrier between entangled components can alter the effect it can be thought that such a cause does not act in three dimensional space.  Also, a cause acting from outside three dimensional space could avoid the action of the forces, and given that relativity only applies to four dimensional spacetime then the principle would be compatible with instantaneous action at a distance from a cause in extra dimensions where there would be no objects in relative motion and thus no dimension of time. 

    We found that a simple means of representing a cause acting from additional dimensions to produce entanglement was appropriate.  So that we visualised a cause acting from a fourth dimension of space in three dimensions and upon two dimensional particles in a world of two spatial dimensions.  For it is only necessary to picture the extra-dimensional spatial relationship of an invisible cause to its effects, which we assumed to be essentially the same as a three to two dimensional relationship (fig.1 p.7).   

    We then argued that to distinguish between entangled and non-entangled quantum objects a cause acting from a fifth dimension of space is required to produce entanglement.   This would be a cause that would act upon the fourth dimensional cause so that its action would be conserved (fig.2, p.8).  We found we could then extrapolate both that the cause would act from a fifth dimension to produce also found just-ification for the fifth dimensional cause by considering that each type of composite of subatomic components would require its own separate fourth dimensional cause, and this would only be possible if each was a sub-cause that ‘branched’ from a single universal fifth dimensional cause (fig.6, p.15).

    From our diagrammatic hypothesis we could extrapolate both a cause acting from a fourth and fifth spatial dimension so as to conserve the forms of all atoms, molecules and living organisms – each element, compound and spec-ies possessing its own fourth dimensional sub-cause – and a universalised fourth dimensional cause that would produce the quantum wave property of photons and matter particles as an extra-dimensional and immaterial ether-like causal medium that would be consistent with relativity, which did not disprove the existence of any kind of ether, and would not have been measured by the Michelson-Morley experiment.  And first of all we deduced a cosmological origin to the quantum wave, which needed to be justified by the development of a cosmological theory where astronomical evidence is considered as various large scale effects of a nonlocal cause acting in addition to gravity in particular. 

    Thus, like the theory of the cosmological origin of subatomic particles, our theory postulates the origin of the quantum wave from the very early universe.  However, our theory requires that the universal expansion to be driven by the nonlocal cause itself and would not require an exponential acceleration as described in the theory of cosmological inflation.

    We cite the argument of Roger Penrose, that by being a thermalising process, the second law of thermodynamics would mean that inflation would create more disorder rather than the isotropy and homogeneity that the theory is said to produce.  Also, inflation did not predict the acceleration in the expansion of the universe and Lee Smolin argues that the acceleration could not be explained by the theory.  Smolin also mentions the measured overall preferred direction of energy measured of the cosmic microwave background radiation by the WMAP satellite.

     We also questioned the physical possibility of an cosmic inflation that postulates an accelerated expansion to faster than the speed of light given special relativity. Whereas our nonlocally caused expansion theory is both definitely consistent with relativity and accounts for the overall preferred direction of the CMBR as well as cosmologically accounting for the quantum wave.  The we also showed how this expansion theory could account for the formation and form of spiral galaxies and larger scale structure.  So that we postulated an early universe where, due to the limitation of relativity, would not be able to expand at faster than the speed of light but would spiral outwards because of the increase in mass of the matter/energy expanding at close to the speed of light.  We also suggested that the high energy region tapering from the right hand edge to the centre of the WMAP image was evidence of a spiral arm (see images, p.10).   And we later supported the cosmic spiralling theory in our account of the formation and form of spiral galaxies and larger scale structure.

    Thus we conceived of and schematically illus-trated very early universal expansion in the form a spherical all directional spiral of matter/energy.   A cause acting from a fourth spatial dimension could universalise this spiral formation on the small scale so as to produce an interconnecting quantum wave producing medium.  And we able to illustrate how travelling particles could produce a laterally extended wave front as it travels through this medium (figs. 4,5 and 6, p.11).  We were also able to account for the Planck relationship between wave length or frequency and energy.  Thus the shortest wavelengths of radiation and matter particles would possess the highest energy because the universe would be at a higher energy when it was smaller in diameter.  The spherical and all direction form of the very early universe could explain how the various polarisations of radiation waves and how it occurs as a particle travels in any direction.  The spiral causation could also explain why the height of the quantum wave increases over astronomical distances from its source as measured by stellar interferometry.     

    The strength of the outwardly expanding effect of the extra-dimensional cause could be considered to reduce over time and thus the rate of expansion would diminish.  This rate reduc-tion we think would result in the universal spherical spiral becoming one directional at some stage earlier than recombination at 380,000 years and hence the overall preferred direction of the CMBR and we argue from the WMAP image could be a spiral arm (p.10).  And we were able to support this change in form by developing a theory of galaxy formation.

    Thus, in contrast to inflation theory, in our nonlocal cosmology the overall homogeneity, isotropy and flatness of the universe is produced by the even and invariable outward action of the nonlocal cause straightening out the universe as it expands beyond recombination, while the spiral form would straighten out so as to become indistinguishable. Also, galaxy formation would not require quantum fluctuations that produce seeding in the very early universe.  Instead the anisotropies measured by WMAP could be produced at or just before recombination by the nonlocal, extra-dimensionally universalised large scale causal action in the early universe  

    However, we were able to suggest that, in the very rapidly dispersing, post-recombination gaseous medium, the nonlocal cause would not be strong enough to immediately form proto-galaxies.  But rather, a cause that is not dependent upon the locality of matter to produce its effects and is derived from the expanding universe could act so as to produce expanding spherical voids. These holes in the gaseous medium could have the effect of squeezing the matter together intervening between the holes, and it would be the coalescing of this matter that would produce protogalaxies.  Such a process could thus explain both the vast voids in the later universe and why many spiral galaxies possess a central bar.  Thus a galactic bar would form where protogalaxies are squeezed together between two expanding vacua or proto-voids.  Stars would then form towards the centres of the bars while the spiralling action of the cause would produce spiral arms at the still gaseous ends of the bar.  This squeezing process could also explain why some spiral bars, like that of the Milky Way, appear to be peanut shaped.  

    We also found reasons to suggest that that the observed early development of quasars and thus also of supermassive black holes could be explained by the large scale spiralling action of a nonlocal cause.  So that the action of the centre of such a cause would be more energetically concentrated and so, together with the action of gravity, could produce super massive central concentrations of matter.

    Nearly all spiral galaxies are observed to possess central bulges that vary in proportion to the overall size of the galaxy according to the openness of their spiral arms.  So that the smaller the bulge the more open are the arms.  In our theory we can suggest that the central bulge is the result of the spherically spiralling form of the very early universe.  While the proportionate size of the galaxy bulge and the openness of the spiral arms is a function of the time at which the protogalaxy was formed.  Thus lenticular or S0 galaxies with no visible spiralling and proportionately large central bulges would have formed earliest and which are observed contain older stars and little gas.  While Sc and Sd galaxies with the smallest bulges and the most open spiral arms would be the last spirals to form, and these contain younger stars and the most gas.  Those with no visible bulge could have had bulges that were small enough to have been swallowed by the black hole nucleus.  Dwarf ellipticals could have formed out of protogalaxy gas clouds that were too small to develop spiral arms and resemble spiral galaxy bulges. This also being the case for stellar clusters observed around larger galaxies, which would have formed out of still smaller gas clouds.

    Because the large scale action of the nonlocal cause would have weakened in the later universe, it need not have been able to form regular shaped galaxies at all. Thus dwarf irregular galaxies could have been the last of any kind to form, and out of the wisps of gas left over after the larger galaxies had formed, while these dwarves are found to contain more young stars and gas than other galaxies.                 

     To form and maintain spiral galaxies would require a large amount of energy input in addition that produced by the known forces. Thus we enquired whether and if so, what may count as available evidence of how there could be such energy in stars, and we centred upon the extreme heat of the sun’s corona, which, at some million degrees Kelvin, is far hotter than the sun’s surface.  We could consider that, while a nonlocal cause could produce a significant effects within the sun, this could be much more marked where it acts upon low density gas just above the sun’s surface as a nonlocal effect extra-dimensionally transferred from the very early universe. 

    We can also think that the sun is a composite system that is acted upon by the nonlocal cause just because it could have been formed initially with assistance of the cause and is a natural object that is composed of many components of matter.  Then also, we thought that the sun’s regular cycle of sun spots and other energetic activity could be evidence of the sun’s composite organisation.

    Assuming that the world is universally made just of particles and the known forces we considered the lack of evidence for the existence the mind or experiencing subject as possessing a distinct immaterial existence in addition to the body.  Except that evidence in favour of such an entity could be cited as the lack of objective evidence for the existence of consciousness.  So that while there are modern methods of detecting brain activity contents of conscious experience as such is still imperceptible.  Also, no mechanism has been found for the transformation of brain states into mental states.  So that while mind can be described as an emergent property of the brain, no account of the body can be given of how or why this emergence occurs. 

    With an extra-dimensional form conserving cause acting upon living organisms, however, the inaccessibility of consciousness can be accounted for by its being outside the three dimensions of space containing the body and the world.  So we can think of the body including the brain being like atoms and molecules in having an extra-dimensional side to them, while consciousness is the result of an interaction between the brain and the extra-dimensional cause conserving the form of all matter as atoms, molecules and living organisms. 

    We found that there are also two crucial problems solved are by this conception of mind.  Thus there is the problem of how there could be many of anything that is immaterial.  So, like gravity or electromagnetism, there could surely not be more than one thing that is the mind or subject of experience.  But an extra–dimens-ional form conserving cause would not be or act like any force by being singular for each species only in an extra dimension of space:  the relationship of such a cause to its three dimensional effects allowing any number of minds or subjects to perceive the world from the unique points view of each and every organism.

   The other problem is related to that of many minds in that the question is about how many minds but is less abstract.  So we can consider a living organism bodily dividing like a single cell into two experiencing individuals. And we can think that we would only experience from the point of view from either one or other of the separated parts.  Whereas logically one can think that one should see the world from two points of view if both parts of one’s body survive. Given our theoretical conception of an extra-dimensional experiencing subject, how-ever, the solution is provided by there always being a singular, indivisible mind outside the three dimensions containing the body and the rest of the visible world.

    We found the form conserving causal property could be straightforwardly related to the behaviour of living organisms, both individually, where all survival behaviour could be described as form conserving, and collectively, where parentally and communally protective behaviour could be called species form conserving.  Thus we can account for the reproductive and collectively protective behav-iour of living organisms in purposive terms of serving to perpetuate the experience of all living individuals of each species, rather than just being compelled to survive in order to perpet-uate their genetic material.

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